The ironbark and bloodwood woodland

Names

The dictionary, recorded at Bloomfield, sorts the woodland trees by their bark, which is also how a botanist tells them apart. There are three words for bloodwood: babajaka, kawarr and kuji-kuji, each 'a species of bloodwood tree'; kayjurr 'white gum' and bajar, 'species of white gum' and 'Moreton Bay ash'; jabarr 'baldy gum'; and three words for the fibrous-barked trees, marbaji and wulngkurr 'stringy bark' and warka 'messmate or stringy bark'^[8]. The wattles are yalngkal 'white wattle', yarun 'black wattle (yellow flower)' and yumba 'species of wattle'; dalban is 'a species of oak' and kingal the river oak; jujabala is the ironwood and kalkuri the woolly-butt paperbark^[8]. nganka is 'flower, blossom'^[8].

Two fruit trees of the woodland can be matched to Roth's 1901 Bloomfield list: banday, 'a species of tree with edible cherry-like fruit, ripe in December', is Roth's pandar, which he lists under Buchanania, the little gooseberry tree; and jingajalka, with its 'small and elongated plum-like' fruit and basket bark, is his jinjajalga, Terminalia sericocarpa, the damson plum^[8][9].

For the country itself: bubu 'ground, earth; a person's Country'; manjal 'mountain'; jamba 'hillside'; balay 'level ground' and dubar 'flat place'; jangka 'stone', kulji 'pebbles' and jukar 'sand'; jikan and kakarr 'grass'; ngalku 'bush fire' and duli 'burnt patch of grass'; baral 'road, path, track'; and the tree words juku 'tree, wood of any size', birra 'leaf', dakil-dakil 'branches', dimbirr 'hollow trunk', dingal 'base of a tree' and jakalkulu 'tree stump'^[8].

No word for ironbark itself is recorded in the dictionary, and the Western Yalanji names for these inland trees are not in it. If you know them, add them below.

The trees

The trees, by bark.

• Cullen's ironbark (Eucalyptus cullenii): a tree to about 15 m, with thick, rough, dark grey to black, deeply and widely furrowed bark on trunk and branches, lance-shaped leaves, green to yellow buds in sevens, white flowers and hemispherical fruit. It grows in red podsols and shallow stony soil in hilly woodland^[10].

• Molloy red box (E. leptophleba): a bigger tree, 14–28 m, with grey box bark, finely fissured and rough right out to the small branches, flowers on branched stalks at the branch ends and cup-shaped fruit^[11].

• Green-leaf box (E. chlorophylla): a tree to 18 m or a mallee to 6 m, with hard, rough, grey-brown to bleached grey bark, creamy white flowers in sevens^[12].

• Dallachy's gum (Corymbia dallachiana): a smooth-barked 'ghost gum', white to cream and pinkish bark shed in thin patches, sometimes with a short stocking of rough bark at the base; grassy woodland on plains and creek levees^[13].

• Clarkson's bloodwood (C. clarksoniana): to 20 m, with tessellated red-brown to grey-brown bark all the way up, glossy green leaves paler beneath, and urn-shaped fruit^[14].

• Red bloodwood (C. erythrophloia): to 15 m, its tessellated red-brown, grey or pink bark shed in small flakes to give a mottled trunk; buds in sevens^[15].

• Hyland's bloodwood (C. hylandii): a small tree, usually 5 m, of shallow soil on sandstone and granite ridges, with rough tessellated bark and urn-shaped fruit^[16].

• Blotchy bloodwood (C. stockeri): 12–20 m, with thick, soft, scaly reddish bark; the peninsula subspecies grows on river levees and gentle hills south to the Palmer^[17].

• Carbeen or Moreton Bay ash (C. tessellaris), the dictionary's bajar: a tall straight tree, 30–35 m, with rough tessellated grey bark on the lower trunk changing abruptly to smooth bark above; open forest and woodland from Cape York to New South Wales^[18][8].

• Broad-leaved carbeen (C. confertiflora): a straggly, often crooked tree, rough dark bark at the base and white above, that drops its leaves in the dry season^[19].

• River red gum (E. camaldulensis): on the river, to 20 m and sometimes far more, smooth white or cream bark with patches of yellow, pink and brown and loose rough slabs at the base^[20].

Beneath them. Acacia guymeri, an open shrub 1–2.5 m with smooth silver-grey bark, resinous red-brown twigs and spikes of pale to golden flowers, grows on poor stony ridges and is near threatened in Queensland; the candelabra or silver wattle (A. holosericea), 3–8 m, silky-silver, is the one used as a fish poison^[21][22]. Silver oak (Grevillea parallela), to 15 m with dark furrowed bark and hanging strap leaves, and bushman's clothes peg (G. glauca), spindly, hairy-leaved, with cylinders of flowers, are the two grevilleas^[23][24]. The kurrajong here is Brachychiton albidus, described only in 1988^[25]. Native cotton (Gossypium australe), a soft grey-leaved shrub of sandy ground near watercourses, and the black-currant tree (Antidesma ghaesembilla), with sweet purple-black fruit, grow in the moister places^[26][27]. Brown randia (Atractocarpus sessilis) and the wild gardenia (Gardenia vilhelmii) are the glossy-leaved shrubs; the fibre-barked teatree (Melaleuca stenostachya) stands in the drainage lines^[28][29][2]. Under everything, kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra) and black speargrass (Heteropogon contortus), the grass whose twisted awns catch in your socks, and on the stoniest ground spinifex (Triodia)^[30][31][2].

Telling the trees apart

The quickest way through the eucalypts is the bark, and the dictionary's classes match the botanist's:

• Ironbark: hard, dark, deeply furrowed, never shed, the whole height of the tree^[10].
• Box: grey, finely fissured, rough but not deep, out to the small branches^[11][12].
• Bloodwood (babajaka, kawarr, kuji-kuji): tessellated, broken into small squares like crocodile skin, red-brown to grey, shed in little flakes; the urn- or barrel-shaped fruit and the red kino that bleeds from a cut are the other marks^[14][15][8].
• Gum (kayjurr, jabarr): smooth bark shed in patches, white, cream or pink, sometimes with a short rough stocking at the base^[13][20][8].
• Carbeen / Moreton Bay ash (bajar): rough tessellated bark on the bottom few metres, then abruptly smooth^[18][8].
• Stringybark and messmate (marbaji, wulngkurr, warka): long, fibrous, stringy bark that peels in sheets, which is why it was the hut bark^[8][7].
• Paperbark (buyku): papery layers, and a different family's flowers in bottlebrush spikes; see the paperbark page.

The two grevilleas are told apart by their leaves, strap-like and hanging on the silver oak, broad and hairy on bushman's clothes peg^[23][24]. The wattles are told by their phyllodes: needle-thin on A. guymeri, broad and silvery on the candelabra wattle^[21][22].

Reading the woodland: signs

• A bower. The great bowerbird builds a twin-walled avenue about a metre long and 45 cm high under a shrub or leafy branch, with white and green objects, stones, bones, shells, leaves, bottle caps, scattered at the ends. The male spends most of the year on it^[6].
• Hollows. Red-tailed black cockatoos nest in cavities in big eucalypts; pale-headed rosellas use a hollow often more than a metre deep; blue-winged kookaburras nest in a hollow high up^[4][32][33]. A big old ironbark or bloodwood with hollows is worth more to the woodland than any other tree.
• Mud nests on a horizontal branch are the apostlebirds', built and guarded by the whole family group^[34]. A round woven grass nest with a tube entrance five metres up a eucalypt is a black-throated finch's^[35].
• Bee sign. In the late dry Bloomfield people checked the bases of the trees the bees favour for bee dung, and tapped the trunk for hollowness; and they cut steps up the trunk to reach a nest. Old cut steps on a tree are the sign of an old sugarbag tree^[7].
• Burnt patches (duli) and the mosaic of burnt and unburnt grass are the sign of a woodland being managed with fire, and new green pick on a burn is where the wallabies will be^[8][1].
• Birds over a fire. Whistling kites and black kites hunt the front of a grass fire, and are among the birds known to carry burning sticks and spread it^[36].
• Flowering trees. A tree in blossom full of noise is lorikeets and honeyeaters by day; at night it is the little red flying foxes, which leave their camps along the creeks to feed in the woodland^[5][37].
• Chewed bloodwood fruit under a tree, split open, is cockatoo work: eucalyptus seed is the mainstay of the red-tailed black cockatoo's diet, especially the big-fruited gums and bloodwoods^[4].
• Echidna diggings into ant nests and termite mounds, and the echidna's wandering track; it feeds with a tongue it can push 18 cm out of its snout^[38].
• Dawn. The blue-faced honeyeater's piping call starts about half an hour before first light^[39].

Where it is

Where in the woodland. The ironbarks and boxes take the hills; Dallachy's gum the grassy flats and creek levees; Hyland's bloodwood the sandstone and granite ridges; the blotchy bloodwood the river levees; A. guymeri the poor rocky ridges; native cotton and the black-currant tree the sandy and moist ground near water^{[10][13][16][17][21][26][27]}. The waterholes and their paperbark fringe are another country again: see the waterhole.

Who eats whom, and when

What the trees give

The woodland runs on three things the trees produce: blossom, seed and hollows, and on the grass beneath them.

• Nectar and pollen. Rainbow lorikeets feed mainly on fruit, pollen and nectar with a brush-tipped tongue made for it, and eucalyptus nectar is central to them^[5]. The blue-faced honeyeater takes mostly insects but works the blossom too^[39]. At night the little red flying foxes come in from their camps near the creeks to feed in the woodland, and their colonies are recognised as important contributors to woodland ecology, as pollinators^[37]. The native bees turn the same blossom into sugarbag; Kuku Yalanji people recognised nine kinds of honey bee, and the dry season was sugarbag time^[7].
• Seed. The red-tailed black cockatoo's mainstay is eucalyptus seed, with a special relationship to the larger-fruited gums and bloodwoods; in the north they gather in flocks of hundreds where food is concentrated^[4]. Pale-headed rosellas take grass and tree seed, river red gum among it^[32]. On the ground the black-throated finch lives mainly on fallen grass seed, in flocks of up to 30, with spiders and ants on the side, and the double-barred finch is a seed-eater too^[35][40]. The squatter pigeon walks the same ground^[41].
• Hollows. Cockatoos, rosellas and kookaburras all nest in hollows, which only old trees have^[4][32][33]. The bats that top the mammal records roost in caves and hollows and hunt the night air for insects^[3].
• Grass. Kangaroo grass and black speargrass feed the wallabies and wallaroos, the finches and the fires^[30][31][1].

Who eats whom

• Insects feed almost everyone: apostlebirds on the ground, the honeyeaters in the canopy, the bats at night, the echidna in the ant nests^[34][39][38].
• The blue-winged kookaburra eats whatever lives on or near the ground: in the wet season more insects, lizards and frogs; in the dry more crayfish, scorpions and the like. It is taken in turn by the red goshawk and the rufous owl, and its nests are raided by pythons, quolls and goannas^[33].
• The pheasant coucal takes small reptiles and frogs, birds' eggs and nestlings, small mammals and big insects, from its grass nest with the stems tied over it^[42].
• The bustard, a metre tall and nomadic, eats shoots, roots, leaves, flowerheads, fruit and small animals; it lays one egg on bare ground, and the black-breasted buzzard breaks the egg with a stone^[43].
• The wallabies and wallaroos graze the grass. The antilopine wallaroo moves in groups of up to 30 that bunch together against people and dingoes; the common wallaroo is mostly nocturnal and solitary, on the rocky hills; the Mareeba rock-wallaby lives on the rock piles and is near threatened^[44][45][46]. See the wallaby page for the agile wallaby.
• The hunters. The wedge-tailed eagle, one of the world's most powerful birds of prey, is above all a mammal hunter, nesting in the largest tree in a stand^[47]. The whistling and black kites take small mammals, birds, fish, reptiles and carrion, and hunt the fires^[36]. The dingo hunts the wallaroos^[44]. The goannas and the snakes, the mulga snake and the coastal taipan among them, take the lizards, frogs, eggs and small mammals^[3].
• The ferals. Rubber vine is a weed that climbs and strangles the trees along rivers and is deadly to stock^[48].

Through the day

The honeyeater pipes half an hour before dawn^[39]. First light brings the lorikeets and cockatoos to the flowering and fruiting trees, noisy and in flocks^[5][4]; the finches and pigeons are on the ground for seed while it is cool^[35][41]; the bowerbird is at his bower^[6]. Through the heat of the day the wallabies lie up in shade and the birds go quiet; the kites and the eagle ride the thermals^[47]. Towards dusk the kookaburras call and the wallaroos come out to graze^[45]. After dark the flying foxes arrive in the blossom, the bats take the insects, the echidna and the common wallaroo work the night, and the dingoes hunt^[37][45][44].

Through the year

The wet fills the grass with seed and the ground with insects, and that is when the black-throated finch breeds in the north, from February after the monsoon^[35]; the kookaburras breed in the late dry, September to December, as the storms build^[33]; the pale-headed rosella's northern birds nest from February to June^[32]. The early dry is burning time: the regional-ecosystem guidelines for this woodland call for low-intensity burns in the early dry season and at storm time, every two to five years with longer unburnt patches, never more than 40 per cent of the country at once, and after a big wet, because the grass is heavier^[1]. The dry season was sugarbag season at Bloomfield, when the hives were found, climbed and cut^[7]. The storms bring the sap up: Bloomfield people cut their messmate bark sheets for huts after the first storms in December, when the bark would peel^[7].

Seasons and fire

• Fire. For the ironbark–box–bloodwood woodland: early dry season and storm time, low intensity with occasional moderate, every 2–5 years with longer unburnt patches, less than 40 per cent of the country in any one year, and burns after a big wet because fuel loads will be high^[1]. The stony silver-leaved ironbark woodland is different: fire only every 10–50 years, after good rain, because its wattles do not survive frequent or hot fire^[49]. The paperbark fringe along the river should not be burnt deliberately at all^[50]. How fire was used to hunt is on the hunting with fire page.
• Honey: the dry season^[7].
• Bark: after the first storms in December, when the sap has risen^[7].
• Fruit: banday, the little gooseberry, ripens in December; the black-currant tree's fruit turns purple to black when ripe^[8][27].
• Birds: finches breed after the monsoon, kookaburras from September, cockatoo flocks gather wherever a crop of seed or blossom is heavy^[35][33][4].

What people take from the woodland

What Kuku Yalanji people took from the open woodland, from the Bloomfield record^[7][8][9]:

• Bark. Sheets of messmate (Eucalyptus tetrodonta) bark for the inland huts, cut and peeled after the first storms, pounded with stones and smoked flat; troughs from the bark of various eucalypts; see bark troughs and huts and shelters^[7].
• Firewood. Dead branches of grey boxwood, the carbeen or Moreton Bay ash (bajar), 'made the best cooking wood: it is very hard, but splits easily and burns slowly and intensely'^[7][8].
• Honey. Sugarbag from nine kinds of bee, found by watching the hole, following the bee home or, at China Camp, tying a streamer of bush cotton to a bee so it hummed; the tree was climbed on cut steps or grass ropes, or felled, and the comb went into a bark container; see native bees^[7].
• Gum. Ironbark gum, carried on a small stick in a man's bag with his firesticks and spare spear barbs, and used with beeswax to haft stone axes; see beeswax and gums^[7].
• Leaves. Eucalyptus and wattle leaves laid with the meat in the earth oven for flavour^[7].
• Wattle. Acacia wood for spear shafts and barbs (see spear and woomera); the candelabra wattle as a fish poison, and its seeds as food^[7][22].
• Fruit. Banday and jingajalka, the little gooseberry and the damson, and the black-currant tree, whose fruit Mangarrayi and Yangman people in the Northern Territory eat ripe and crush into a cordial^{[8][9][27][51]}.
• Grass. Kangaroo grass seed was ground for bread and its stems twisted for string in other parts of Australia; black speargrass stems are sucked for their sweet sap in the Northern Territory^[30][31].
• Game. Wallabies, goannas, bustard (trapped elsewhere with pits around a fruiting caper bush) and grubs^[7][43].
• Adornment. Bloodwood seed pods mixed with small clay balls went into the hair, and cockatoo crest feathers in beeswax made a head ornament for men^[7].

Reading the country on a day's walk

How to read this country on a day's walk, using what the animals and trees give away.

1. Before dawn, listen. The blue-faced honeyeater starts half an hour before light; where it calls there is blossom^[39].
2. At first light, find the flowering trees by the lorikeets' noise, and the fruiting bloodwoods by the cockatoos and the split fruit beneath^[5][4]. A tree the birds are in is a tree the bees are in.
3. Walk the grass while it is cool and watch for finches and squatter pigeons getting up; they show you where the seed is heavy, and so where the wallabies feed^[35][41].
4. Check the big old trees for hollows, bee dung at the base, and cut steps^[7][4].
5. Look under the shrubs for a bower, and on the branches for the apostlebirds' mud nests^[6][34].
6. Read the burns. Fresh black means a recent fire; green pick on it means wallabies at dusk; old unburnt tussock means heavy fuel^[1].
7. In the heat, do what the wallabies do: shade, water, stillness.
8. Before dark, be off the hills. The wallaroos and the dingoes have the night, and so do the snakes^[45][3].

Burning, hunting and honey have their own pages: hunting with fire, wallaby, goanna, native bees, firestick.

Safety

• Snakes. Boots, a torch at night, and never a hand into grass or under bark you cannot see.

• Fire. This is fire country by design, with a 2–5 year burn cycle, and a grass fire in black speargrass in the late dry moves faster than you can walk^[1]. Lighting fires needs a permit beyond the small cooking fire^[52].

• Weeds. Rubber vine is extremely toxic to horses and cattle^[48].

• Heat and distance. The hills look alike and the creeks are dry; carry water, and keep the river's line in your head.

• Falling timber. Dead branches are what the fire and the cockatoos leave; do not camp under them.

On Country today

Native title holders' rights differ from place to place: see each place above. Their rights to hunt, gather and camp are protected from licence requirements by section 211 of the Native Title Act 1993^[53]. Anyone else needs the Traditional Owners' permission.

Queensland's vegetation mapping rates this woodland 'least concern', but some of what lives in it is not: the southern black-throated finch is endangered, the southern squatter pigeon is listed as threatened, Acacia guymeri is near threatened in Queensland and the Mareeba rock-wallaby near threatened on the IUCN list^{[1][35][41][21][46]}. The things that keep them are the things this page is about: old hollow trees, grass with seed in it, and fire at the right time.

Language

Country words: bubu 'ground, earth; a person's Country'; manjal 'mountain'; jamba 'hillside'; balay 'level ground'; dubar 'level or flat place'; kuri 'small patch of scrub'; madja 'scrub, jungle, rain forest'; warrmba 'uncovered or exposed place, in the open'; baral 'road, path, track, trail'. Fire and grass: ngalku 'bush fire'; duli 'burnt patch of grass'; jikan, kakarr 'grass'. Trees: juku 'tree, wood'; birra 'leaf'; nganka 'flower, blossom'; dakil-dakil 'branches of a tree'; dimbirr 'hollow trunk of a tree'; dingal 'base of a tree'; jakalkulu 'tree stump'. The woodland trees are in Names above. And kurranji, the cassowary, which is the rainforest's bird, not this country's^[8].

References

1. Queensland Herbarium, Regional Ecosystem 9.11.26 (Einasleigh Uplands): Eucalyptus leptophleba and/or E. cullenii and/or Corymbia clarksoniana +/- E. platyphylla woodland on undulating terrain to rolling hills. Fire management guidelines. Queensland Government Regional Ecosystem Description Database. apps.des.qld.gov.au/regional-ecosystems/details/?re=9.11.26
2. Atlas of Living Australia. Plant occurrence records within 30 km of the Karma Waters homestead (16.62°S, 144.60°E), queried 10 October 2026: 832 records of 266 species. biocache.ala.org.au/occurrences/search?q=kingdom:Plantae&lat=-16.62&lon=144.60&radius=30
3. Atlas of Living Australia. All occurrence records within 30 km of the Karma Waters homestead (16.618° S, 144.605° E), species facet, queried 5 October 2026 (4,053 records; 601 species). biocache.ala.org.au/occurrences/search?q=*:*&lat=-16.6179&lon=144.6047&radius=30
4. Wikipedia. Red-tailed black cockatoo. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-tailed_black_cockatoo
5. Wikipedia. Rainbow lorikeet. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainbow_lorikeet
6. Wikipedia. Great bowerbird. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_bowerbird
7. Anderson, C. (1996). Traditional material culture of the Kuku-Yalanji of Bloomfield River, North Queensland. Records of the South Australian Museum 29(1): 63–83. Based on fieldwork at Wujal Wujal in the late 1970s and early 1980s. — Hunting (spears, spear-throwers, harpoons); fishing (stupefacients); manufacturing (gums and resins); post-contact bush component archive.org/details/RecordsSouthAus29Sout
8. Hershberger, H. D. & Hershberger, R. (1982). Kuku-Yalanji Dictionary. Work Papers of SIL-AAB, Series B, Volume 7. With Toby Bloomfield, Roy Friday, Billy Roberts, Hector and Doris Sykes, Joe Walker and others. www.sil.org/resources/archives/18038
9. Roth, W. E. (1901). North Queensland Ethnography, Bulletin No. 3: Food — its search, capture, and preparation. Brisbane: Government Printer. Bloomfield River information from the Hislops. — Sect. 6 'Cooking'; plant list ('Castanospermum australe', 'Dioscorea sativa', 'Elettaria Scottiana', 'Nymphaea') archive.org/details/northqueensland00landgoog
10. Wikipedia. Eucalyptus cullenii (Cullen's ironbark). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucalyptus_cullenii
11. Wikipedia. Eucalyptus leptophleba (Molloy red box). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucalyptus_leptophleba
12. Wikipedia. Eucalyptus chlorophylla (green-leaf box). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucalyptus_chlorophylla
13. Wikipedia. Corymbia dallachiana (Dallachy's gum). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corymbia_dallachiana
14. Wikipedia. Corymbia clarksoniana (Clarkson's bloodwood). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corymbia_clarksoniana
15. Wikipedia. Corymbia erythrophloia (red bloodwood). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corymbia_erythrophloia
16. Wikipedia. Corymbia hylandii (Hyland's bloodwood). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corymbia_hylandii
17. Wikipedia. Corymbia stockeri (blotchy bloodwood). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corymbia_stockeri
18. Wikipedia. Corymbia tessellaris (carbeen, Moreton Bay ash). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corymbia_tessellaris
19. Wikipedia. Corymbia confertiflora (broad-leaved carbeen). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corymbia_confertiflora
20. Wikipedia. Eucalyptus camaldulensis (river red gum). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucalyptus_camaldulensis
21. Wikipedia. Acacia guymeri. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acacia_guymeri
22. Wikipedia. Acacia holosericea (candelabra wattle). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acacia_holosericea
23. Wikipedia. Grevillea parallela (silver oak). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grevillea_parallela
24. Wikipedia. Grevillea glauca (bushman's clothes peg). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grevillea_glauca
25. Wikipedia. Brachychiton albidus (kurrajong). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brachychiton_albidus
26. Wikipedia. Gossypium australe (native cotton). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gossypium_australe
27. Wikipedia. Antidesma ghaesembilla (black-currant tree). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidesma_ghaesembilla
28. Wikipedia. Atractocarpus sessilis (brown randia). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atractocarpus_sessilis
29. Wikipedia. Melaleuca stenostachya (fibre-barked teatree). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melaleuca_stenostachya
30. Wikipedia. Themeda triandra (kangaroo grass). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Themeda_triandra
31. Wikipedia. Heteropogon contortus (black speargrass). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heteropogon_contortus
32. Wikipedia. Pale-headed rosella. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pale-headed_rosella
33. Wikipedia. Blue-winged kookaburra. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue-winged_kookaburra
34. Wikipedia. Apostlebird. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostlebird
35. Wikipedia. Black-throated finch. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-throated_finch
36. Wikipedia. Whistling kite (Haliastur sphenurus). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whistling_kite
37. Wikipedia. Little red flying fox. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_red_flying_fox
38. Wikipedia. Short-beaked echidna. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-beaked_echidna
39. Wikipedia. Blue-faced honeyeater. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue-faced_honeyeater
40. Wikipedia. Double-barred finch. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-barred_finch
41. Wikipedia. Squatter pigeon. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squatter_pigeon
42. Wikipedia. Pheasant coucal. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pheasant_coucal
43. Wikipedia. Australian bustard. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_bustard
44. Wikipedia. Antilopine kangaroo (antilopine wallaroo). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antilopine_kangaroo
45. Wikipedia. Common wallaroo. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_wallaroo
46. Wikipedia. Mareeba rock-wallaby. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mareeba_rock-wallaby
47. Wikipedia. Wedge-tailed eagle. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedge-tailed_eagle
48. Wikipedia. Cryptostegia grandiflora (rubber vine). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptostegia_grandiflora
49. Queensland Herbarium, Regional Ecosystem 9.11.1 (Einasleigh Uplands): Eucalyptus melanophloia low woodland on skeletal soils on metamorphic hills; fire management guidelines. apps.des.qld.gov.au/regional-ecosystems/details/?re=9.11.1
50. Queensland Herbarium, Regional Ecosystem 9.3.14 (Einasleigh Uplands): Melaleuca fringing woodland on channels and levees. Fire management guidelines. Queensland Government Regional Ecosystem Description Database. apps.des.qld.gov.au/regional-ecosystems/details/?re=9.3.14
51. Wikipedia. Buchanania arborescens (little gooseberry tree). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buchanania_arborescens
52. Queensland Fire Department. Fire permits: lighting fires in Queensland. fire.qld.gov.au/safety-education/using-fire-outdoors/lighting-fires-in-queensland
53. Australian Law Reform Commission. Review of the Native Title Act 1993 (DP 82), ch. 8: Relevant provisions in the Native Title Act (s 211). www.alrc.gov.au/publication/review-of-the-native-title-act-1993-dp-82/8-the-nature-and-content-of-native-title/relevant-provisions-in-the-native-title-act/
54. Wikipedia. Hann River (Queensland) (accessed 28 October 2026). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hann_River_(Queensland)
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