Insects & honey
Things that bite and sting
kamu · diri-diri · waja · karrkil · murma · biringal · birinjil · nyumbil · malal
The dictionary has a word for everything that bites in a camp: kamu the mosquito, diri-diri and munyurri the sandfly, biray the 'grey March fly', kamay the 'yellow March fly' and waja the 'big yellow March fly', karrkil the 'red jumper ant', of which 'some people have gotten sick and vomited after being bitten by them', ngalmnbu the jumper ant, murma the 'small paper wasp, yellow in colour with a bad sting', mulma and wurrbu the hornets, wurrarr-wurrarr the mud wasp, biringal, manukurru and munudumbun the scorpion, birinjil the centipede, nyumbil the leech, malal the spider, balarr the 'human body flea' and mindil the dog flea[1]. This page is the camp's first-aid order of those things, from the ones that kill to the ones that only itch, with the snakes, the crocodiles, the bats and the pigs on their own pages. The rule from healthdirect: 'most insects in Australia are not harmful to people'; 'the scorpions, centipedes and millipedes found in Australia are not venomous'; among the spiders 'funnel-web spiders and other big black spiders' are the dangerous ones, 'redback spiders' hurt but are 'not life-threatening', and 'all other spiders in Australia are generally harmless'; and the thing that actually kills is allergy, since 'allergies to insect stings are one of the most common causes of anaphylaxis'[2][3]. Inland, the other killer is slow: Ross River virus, 'the most common mosquito-borne disease in Australia', 'more common in the tropical areas of Queensland', carried inland by the Culex annulirostris mosquitoes of the lagoons, for which 'there is no vaccine' and whose joint pain can last months[4][5].
Hann River Cape York
Possum People's country on the upper river and Thaypan (Kuku Thaypan) country downstream: stringybark and bloodwood woodland and a spring-fed sandy river that runs north-east from the Great Dividing Range, past the Peninsula Developmental Road, into Rinyirru (Lakefield) and the North Kennedy. Not Kuku Yalanji country: the Kuku Yalanji words on this page are the dictionary's, not the Hann's own languages. Place guide
Most of the biters on this page are recorded around the Hann, but the record is thin. The Atlas of Living Australia, in a box of about 90 × 85 km around the middle Hann, Laura and western Rinyirru, holds March flies, green ants, paper wasps, redbacks, a mouse spider, big hairy tarantulas, centipedes and scorpions, and no paralysis tick[21]. This is remote country: 'campers must be self-sufficient in this remote area as fuel, supplies and first aid are not readily available'[22].
What the Atlas holds here
Counts and years only, in the box around the middle Hann, Laura and western Rinyirru[21]:
- March flies (Tabanidae): 56 records, 1984–2025.
- Green ants (Oecophylla): 14 records, 1980–2022.
- Paper wasps: Ropalidia 5 records and Polistes 5 records, 2021–2026.
- Redback (Latrodectus): 2 records, 1980 and 2015.
- Mouse spider (Missulena pruinosa): 1 record, 2022. Healthdirect's rule is the pressure bandage for a mouse spider bite, as for a funnel-web[3].
- Tarantulas (Theraphosidae, the whistling spiders): 2 records, 1980 and 2025.
- Giant centipede (Ethmostigmus): 2 records, 2018.
- Scorpions: 4 records, 1993–2017.
- Mosquitoes: only 4 records, all Aedes vigilax, from 1947. Treat that as a gap in the records, not a lack of mosquitoes.
- No jumper ant (Myrmecia) and no paralysis tick record. The paralysis tick belongs to the wet coastal band[11].
The biting year here
Musgrave, the nearest long-running weather station, gets most of its 1174 mm a year from December to March: a mean of 271 mm in January, 295 mm in February and 239 mm in March, and only 3 mm a month in August and September[23]. 'Mosquito numbers rise about 2 weeks after rain'[4], so the wet and the weeks after it are the worst. In the wet 'heavy rains cause the rivers to flood', and around April 'heavy rains ease'[24].
How people dealt with them here
Palmer River (Koko-minni), Roth, about 1900.
- Flies: 'the nuisance of being pestered with flies is abated by the smoke derived from burning the timber of Santalum lanceolatum' (sandalwood) on the Palmer River[25].
- Fly-flicks: 'the Palmer River women employ flicks (KMI. wai-yir) composed of human-hair twine tassels'[25].
- Black snake bite: 'the limb is held tightly with the hand, just above the injury, and the patient made to eat some raw bark of the Leichhardt-tree', which makes him vomit; for other poisonous snakes 'the wound is sucked by a medicine-man'[26]. This is a historical record, not first aid: see snakes.
Kuku Warra (Laura). A Kuku Warra witness told the Federal Court: 'With green ants, you crush the nest, mix it with water and it cures a headache'[27]. See green ants.
Nothing else is published for the Hann itself.
Safety here
On country today
The upper Hann is the Possum People's country[28]; the middle and lower Hann are in the Thaypan native title determination of November 2023, held by the Awu-Laya Indigenous Corporation[29].
Language
Kuku Thaypan words recorded in the Hunter-Gatherer Language Database: aleya 'scorpion', anoga 'ant', ayañjal 'leech', and andaya, amengga and thorr for the hornets and wasps[30].
Upper Mitchell Western Yalanji
Western Yalanji country west of the Great Dividing Range: dry open woodland cut by the sandy, paperbark-lined upper Mitchell River, around Karma Waters and Mount Carbine. Place guide
The Karma Waters lagoons breed the mosquitoes, and the camps have the redbacks and paper wasps of every Queensland camp[31].
What the Atlas holds here
Within 60 km of the Karma Waters homestead the Atlas of Living Australia holds five redback records, five whistling spider records, five records of the paper wasp Ropalidia romandi and three of the giant centipede[31]. The Karma Waters ticks are the inland ones, the cattle and scrub ticks of the grass, and the Atlas has no paralysis tick record here[31].
Safety here
The station's induction has the emergency numbers and the evacuation plan[32].
Eastern coast Eastern Kuku Yalanji
Eastern Kuku Yalanji country: rainforest, beaches, mangroves, reef and the short steep rivers from the Daintree to the Bloomfield and the Annan.
The wet coast is paralysis tick country: the tick 'is usually found in a 20-kilometre wide band following the eastern coastline', in 'areas of high rainfall'[11].
How people dealt with them here
- Mosquito-proof huts: the Bloomfield dome huts were closed up and smoked against mosquitoes; see huts and shelters.
- A March fly game: at Bloomfield Anderson records a children's game called birray, 'March fly', 'in which they chased each other while buzzing like the fly'[33].
Everywhere
Names
Flies: kamu 'mosquito'; diri-diri, munyurri 'sandfly'; biray 'grey March fly', kamay 'yellow March fly', waja 'big yellow March fly' (also 'crow'). Ants: karrkil 'red jumper ant. Some people have gotten sick and vomited after being bitten by them'; ngalmnbu 'jumper ant'; kawa 'little ants, white or black'; kira-kira 'black ant'; muyu-muyu 'small red ant'; and the green ant, munjurr, yangka. Wasps: murma 'small paper wasp, yellow in colour with a bad sting. Its nest hangs in trees'; mulma 'hornet'; wurrbu 'hornet, bumblebee. Nests in a stump or the ground'; wurrarr-wurrarr 'mud wasp'. Scorpion: biringal, manukurru, munudumbun. birinjil 'centipede'. nyumbil 'leech'. malal 'spider and spider web'. balarr 'human body flea'; mindil 'dog flea'. jindal 'to bite and leave a puncture mark'; baji 'a sore'; jalngkay 'itch'[1].
What bites, in order of harm
1. Anaphylaxis, from anything. 'Allergies to insect stings are one of the most common causes of anaphylaxis (severe allergic reactions) in Australia'; 'repeat exposure to ant stings may increase your sensitivity to their venom. The more you get stung, the more likely you are to have an allergic reaction'; 'if you are stung multiple times by a large group of bees or wasps, get medical attention. You may have a toxic reaction (envenomation) after 500 or more bee or wasp stings'[2]. The jumper and bull ants, Myrmecia, 'are characterized by their extreme aggressiveness, ferocity, and painful stings. Some species are known for the jumping behavior they exhibit when agitated'; 'very few predators eat these ants due to their sting, but their larvae are often consumed by blindsnakes and echidnas'[6]. The dictionary's note on the red jumper ant, that people 'have gotten sick and vomited', is an allergy note[1].
2. Spiders. 'Funnel-web spiders and other big black spiders — bites from these spiders are very dangerous and can cause death'; 'redback spiders — bites from redbacks can cause a lot of pain, but they aren't life-threatening'; 'all other spiders in Australia are generally harmless'[3]. The redback (Latrodectus hasselti): 'the adult female is easily recognised by her spherical black body with a prominent red stripe on the upper side of her abdomen and an hourglass-shaped red/orange streak on the underside. Females usually have a body length of about 10 millimetres'; 'mainly nocturnal, the female redback lives in an untidy web in a warm sheltered location, commonly near or inside human residences'[7]. The Queensland whistling spider (Selenocosmia crassipes), the big hairy one that is not a funnel-web: 'legspans of up to 22 cm', 'the largest Australian tarantula'; it 'produce[s] a hissing noise when provoked'; 'a burrowing arachnid, living underground in burrows, which can be up to 1 metre deep, but might be forced into the open during periods of heavy rain'; it eats insects, spiders, 'geckos, skinks and frogs'[8]. For 'a big, black, hairy spider' healthdirect's rule is the pressure bandage, as for a snake, and the hospital[3]. The huntsman on the wall is harmless: 'their legs ... extend forward in a crab-like fashion'; 'they tend to live under rocks, bark, and similar shelters, but human encounters are common in sheds, garages'[9].
3. Ticks. 'Ticks are parasites that can bite and feed on animal and human blood'; 'they can bury into your skin and scalp, and stay attached to you for up to 5 days'; 'tick bites can cause a variety of illnesses. The most common are allergic reactions', 'from a mild reaction to anaphylaxis'; 'in eastern Australia, most tick bites are caused by the paralysis tick Ixodes holocyclus'[10]. The paralysis tick 'is usually found in a 20-kilometre wide band following the eastern coastline', in 'areas of high rainfall', on 'bandicoots, possums and kangaroos'; inland, the ticks are the cattle and scrub ticks of the grass, and the first-aid rule is the same[11]. The removal: 'trying to remove the tick before it's dead may cause it to inject more venom'; 'to kill the tick safely, freeze it with an ether spray'; 'if the tick is embedded in your skin, use permethrin cream'; 'you should not squeeze, twist or try to forcibly remove the tick'; 'once the tick is off your skin, wash the area with soap and water'[10].
4. Mosquitoes and fevers. 'Australia has more than 350 species of mosquitoes. However, only some mosquitoes bite people. Some mosquitoes spread disease'; 'see your doctor urgently or go to the emergency department if you have' fever, joint pain or a rash after bites, 'signs of mosquito-borne diseases, such as Ross River virus'[12]. 'Ross River virus infection (also known as Ross River fever and epidemic polyarthritis) is caused by an alphavirus. It is spread to humans by infected mosquitoes. Ross River virus infection is the most common mosquito-borne disease in Australia'; 'more common in the tropical areas of Queensland and the Northern Territory'; 'the illness usually begins with painful joints and muscle pain'; 'symptoms can appear anywhere from 3 to 21 days after being bitten'; 'some people may experience painful joints for 3 to 6 months after diagnosis'; 'the highest risk is in warm, humid areas near water'; 'there are no approved vaccines or antiviral drugs yet'; 'mosquito numbers rise about 2 weeks after rain'[4]. 'Inland the Culex annulirostris is the main carrier with Aedes mosquitoes becoming active during wet seasons', and the virus lives in 'natural reservoirs such as large marsupial mammals', the wallabies of the river[5].
5. Wasps and hornets. The small brown paper wasps, Ropalidia, among them R. romandi, which is 'swarm founding, meaning that new nests are founded by a large group of workers', hang their combs under leaves and eaves; the dictionary's murma, 'yellow in colour with a bad sting', and its hornets that nest 'in a stump or the ground' are the ones a hand goes into[13][1]. The native bees page has Roth's method for taking the wasp brood with a torch of grass.
6. Centipedes and scorpions. 'The scorpions, centipedes and millipedes found in Australia are not venomous' in healthdirect's sense of dangerous, though the bite of the giant centipede (Ethmostigmus rubripes), 'a solitary nocturnal predator' that 'can often be found sheltering beneath logs, bark, leaf litter, or rocks', is a famous night of pain[2][14]. The dictionary gives the scorpion three names[1].
7. March flies and sandflies. March flies are horse-flies: 'females have mouthparts strong enough to puncture the skin of large animals ... a stout stabbing organ with two pairs of sharp cutting blades, and a spongelike part used to lap up the blood'; 'the larvae are predaceous and grow in semiaquatic habitats'; 'in Australia and the UK they are also known as March flies'[15]. Sandflies are the biting midges, Culicoides: 'only the females take a blood meal'; 'females typically bite at dusk or dawn often in dense swarms and usually in the vicinity of water, marshes or rotting vegetation'; 'the bite of Culicoides is felt as a sharp prick and is often followed by irritating lumps that may disappear in a few hours or last for days'[16]. Roth records that March flies were eaten by 'the Tully River children'[17].
8. Leeches. 'The majority of freshwater leeches are found in the shallow, vegetated areas on the edges of ponds, lakes and slow-moving streams'; the land leeches of the wet scrub 'feed largely on mammals, including humans'; they attach 'with a sucker' and secrete 'hirudin to prevent the blood from clotting', which is why the bite bleeds[18]. The dictionary's nyumbil is the leech and the coolibah tree both[1].
9. Caterpillars. 'Some caterpillars can cause painful, itchy and inflamed skin if their hairs stick into you'; 'if caterpillar hairs get stuck on your skin, remove them with tweezers or sticky tape'[2].
Telling the dangerous from the harmless
- Redback: a small shiny black spider with a red stripe, hanging upside down in a messy web under a seat, a tap, a tyre; the male is tiny and harmless[7].
- Whistling spider: big, brown and hairy, in a silk-lined burrow in the ground, hissing; treat as a 'big black spider' and bandage[8][3].
- Huntsman: big, flat, grey-brown, crab-legged, on the wall or under bark; harmless[9].
- Jumper ant: a long-jawed red-and-black ant that jumps at you from the nest mound; the green ant bites and sprays acid but is not the same risk[6][19].
- Paper wasp: a small brown-and-yellow wasp on an open comb under a leaf; the mud wasp's clay cells on the wall are a solitary wasp that rarely stings[13][1].
- March fly: a heavy grey or yellow fly that lands silently and cuts; the sandfly is a dot you feel before you see[15][16].
- A tick is a flat grey or brown seed that grows to a pea; a leech is a black worm that moves like an inch-worm[10][18].
Signs
- Jumper ant nests: low gravel mounds with a hole, ants standing up at the entrance[6].
- A silk-lined hole in the ground the width of a thumb: the whistling spider[8].
- A messy web in a dark corner with white egg sacs: a redback[7].
- Paper combs under the leaves and eaves; clay cells on the wall[13].
- Mosquitoes rising two weeks after rain, and worst at dusk by the lagoons[4][16].
- A dog scratching one spot: a tick[10].
Where they are
The mosquitoes and sandflies at the lagoons and the river at dusk and dawn; the March flies on the open flats in the heat; the jumper ants on the sandy ground of the woodland; the paper wasps under leaves and the eaves of the camp; the redback in the sheds and under the furniture; the whistling spider and the centipede under logs and in the ground; the leeches in the wet scrub and the lagoon edges; the ticks in the long grass the stock use[16][6][7][8][14][18][10].
Who eats the biters
The things that bite are food for everything else: the mosquitoes and midges feed the small fish, the dragonflies, the swallows and the bats; the March flies feed the bee-eaters; the jumper ants' larvae are 'consumed by blindsnakes and echidnas'; the wasps' brood was eaten by people; the spiders feed the kookaburras and the geckos and the whistling spider eats the geckos back; the leeches 'are prey to fish, birds, and invertebrates'[6][17][8][18]. A camp with geckos on the walls, native bees in the trees and a resident kookaburra has fewer biters than a camp without.
Seasons
The wet and the weeks after every storm are the mosquito time, and the Aedes 'becoming active during wet seasons'; the March flies come with the heat of the build-up; the sandflies with every still dusk at the water; the leeches in the wet scrub; the jumper ants and wasps all year, worst when the nest is disturbed[5][4][16]. See the year on country.
What the old people did with them
- Green ants as medicine and food; see green ants[1][17].
- Wasp larvae eaten raw after the nest was smoked with a grass torch[17].
- March flies eaten by the Tully children[17].
- Smoke against mosquitoes: a smoky fire of the right wood, as the Warumungu burn the gutta-percha tree; see bush medicine.
First aid, from healthdirect
- Anaphylaxis: trouble breathing, swelling of the face or throat, collapse: call triple zero (000), use the adrenaline autoinjector if there is one, and start CPR if breathing stops[2][3].
- A big black hairy spider bite: pressure immobilisation bandage as for a snake, splint the limb, mark the bite, note the time, hospital; 'only use an immobilisation bandage for funnel web or mouse spider bites' and for 'a big, black, hairy spider'[3].
- Redback and other spiders: a wrapped ice pack, 'if your pain is very bad, go to your local hospital emergency department'; catch the spider for identification if you safely can[3].
- Bee sting: 'carefully scrape the sting out using the edge of your fingernail or something like a credit card'; antihistamines for the swelling 'for up to 3 days'[2].
- Tick: freeze it with an ether spray from the pharmacy and let it drop off, or permethrin cream on an embedded one; do not squeeze or pull; wash; 'if the tick does not drop off, or can't be frozen, leave it in place and get urgent medical help'[10].
- Mosquito and sandfly bites: 'wash the area with soap and water. Use an ice pack to reduce the itching and swelling', wrapped; do not scratch; see a doctor for fever, joint pain or rash after bites[12].
- Leech: let it finish or slide a fingernail under the sucker; the bite bleeds for a while because of the hirudin; wash it[18].
- Caterpillar hairs: sticky tape[2].
- Any bite that goes red, warm and painful days later is infected and needs antibiotics[2].
- Prevention: repellent on exposed skin, 'long clothing', screens and nets, and the dusk and dawn indoors or in smoke when the lagoons are up; an adult applies repellent to children under five, none for babies under three months[12][4].
Safety
- Allergy is the killer; anyone who has had a bad reaction carries the autoinjector on country[2].
- A bite from something you did not see on a hand put into a hollow, under bark or into a burrow is treated as a snake bite until proven otherwise; see snakes[20].
- Mosquito disease is the most likely thing on this page to put someone in bed for months; the repellent and the net are the medicine[4].
On Country today
Every camp in this country has its mosquitoes, redbacks and paper wasps; the paralysis tick stays near the coast[11]. The dictionary's names are the camp's; the Western Yalanji words are for the contribution box below[1].
Language
kamu 'mosquito'; diri-diri, munyurri 'sandfly'; biray, kamay, waja March flies; karrkil, ngalmnbu jumper ants; murma 'paper wasp'; mulma, wurrbu 'hornet'; wurrarr-wurrarr 'mud wasp'; biringal 'scorpion'; birinjil 'centipede'; nyumbil 'leech'; malal 'spider'; balarr 'flea'; jindal 'to bite and leave a puncture mark'; baji 'a sore'; jalngkay 'itch'[1].
References
- Hershberger, H. D. & Hershberger, R. (1982). Kuku-Yalanji Dictionary. Work Papers of SIL-AAB, Series B, Volume 7. With Toby Bloomfield, Roy Friday, Billy Roberts, Hector and Doris Sykes, Joe Walker and others. www.sil.org/resources/archives/18038
- healthdirect Australia. Insect bites and stings (accessed 10 October 2026). www.healthdirect.gov.au/insect-bites-and-stings
- healthdirect Australia. Spider bites (accessed 10 October 2026). www.healthdirect.gov.au/spider-bites
- healthdirect Australia. Ross River virus infection (accessed 10 October 2026). www.healthdirect.gov.au/ross-river-virus
- Wikipedia. Ross River virus. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_River_virus
- Wikipedia. Myrmecia, the bull ants and jumper ants. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myrmecia_(ant)
- Wikipedia. Redback spider (Latrodectus hasselti). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redback_spider
- Wikipedia. Queensland whistling tarantula (Selenocosmia crassipes). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlogius_crassipes
- Wikipedia. Huntsman spider (Sparassidae). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntsman_spider
- healthdirect Australia. Tick bites (accessed 10 October 2026). www.healthdirect.gov.au/tick-bites
- Wikipedia. Australian paralysis tick (Ixodes holocyclus). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ixodes_holocyclus
- healthdirect Australia. Mosquito bites (accessed 10 October 2026). www.healthdirect.gov.au/mosquito-bites
- Wikipedia. Ropalidia, the small brown paper wasps. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ropalidia
- Wikipedia. Giant centipede (Ethmostigmus rubripes). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethmostigmus_rubripes
- Wikipedia. Horse-fly (Tabanidae), the March flies. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse-fly
- Wikipedia. Culicoides, the biting midges or sandflies. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culicoides
- Roth, W. E. (1901). North Queensland Ethnography, Bulletin No. 3: Food — its search, capture, and preparation. Brisbane: Government Printer. Bloomfield River information from the Hislops. — Sect. 6 'Cooking'; plant list ('Castanospermum australe', 'Dioscorea sativa', 'Elettaria Scottiana', 'Nymphaea') archive.org/details/northqueensland00landgoog
- Wikipedia. Leech. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leech
- Wikipedia. Oecophylla smaragdina (green tree ant, weaver ant). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oecophylla_smaragdina
- healthdirect Australia (Australian Government). Snake bites: symptoms, first aid and the pressure immobilisation bandage (accessed 10 October 2026). www.healthdirect.gov.au/snake-bites
- Atlas of Living Australia. Occurrence records in a box of about 90 × 85 km around the middle Hann River, Laura and western Rinyirru (lat −15.6 to −14.8, long 143.5 to 144.3), queried 28 October 2026: Oecophylla (14 records, 1980–2022); Tabanidae (56, 1984–2025); Ropalidia (5, 2021–2024) and Polistes (5, 2021–2026); Latrodectus (2, 1980 and 2015); Missulena pruinosa (1, 2022); Theraphosidae (2, 1980 and 2025); Ethmostigmus (2, 2018); Scorpiones (4, 1993–2017); Culicidae (4, all Aedes vigilax, 1947); no Myrmecia and no Ixodes holocyclus. biocache.ala.org.au/occurrences/search?q=*%3A*&fq=decimalLatitude%3A%5B-15.6%20TO%20-14.8%5D&fq=decimalLongitude%3A%5B143.5%20TO%20144.3%5D
- Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service. Camping in Rinyirru (Lakefield) National Park (CYPAL) (web page, accessed 28 October 2026). parks.qld.gov.au/parks/rinyirru-lakefield/camping
- Bureau of Meteorology. Climate statistics for Australian locations: Musgrave (station 028007, 79 m), 1887–2012. www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_028007.shtml
- Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service. Nature, culture and history: Rinyirru (Lakefield) National Park (CYPAL) (web page, last updated 1 July 2024; accessed 28 October 2026). parks.qld.gov.au/parks/rinyirru-lakefield/about/culture
- Roth, W. E. (1904). North Queensland Ethnography, Bulletin No. 7: Domestic implements, arts, and manufactures. Brisbane: Government Printer. — Sect. 48 'Fly-flicks. Fans' (Palmer River) archive.org/details/northqueensland00landgoog
- Roth, W. E. (1903). North Queensland Ethnography, Bulletin No. 5: Superstition, magic, and medicine. Brisbane: Government Printer. — Sect. 164 'Treatment of snake-bite' (Palmer River) archive.org/details/northqueensland00landgoog
- Ross on behalf of the Cape York United #1 Claim Group v State of Queensland (No 19) (Kuku Warra determination) [2023] FCA 1314 (Federal Court of Australia, 2 November 2023). www.judgments.fedcourt.gov.au/judgments/Judgments/fca/single/2023/2023fca1314
- Ross on behalf of the Cape York United #1 Claim Group v State of Queensland (No 21) (Possum determination) [2023] FCA 1316 (Federal Court of Australia, 2 November 2023). — Determination area (upper Hann and Kennedy rivers); prescribed body corporate; affidavit evidence on hunting and fishing www.judgments.fedcourt.gov.au/judgments/Judgments/fca/single/2023/2023fca1316
- Ross on behalf of the Cape York United #1 Claim Group v State of Queensland (No 20) (Thaypan determination) [2023] FCA 1315 (Federal Court of Australia, 2 November 2023). — Determination area and waters; prescribed body corporate (Awu-Laya Indigenous Corporation); affidavit evidence on hunting www.judgments.fedcourt.gov.au/judgments/Judgments/fca/single/2023/2023fca1315
- Hunter-Gatherer Language Database (University of Texas at Austin). Lexical features 'ant (generic)', 'scorpion', 'mud wasp, hornet', 'swamp leech': Kuku-Thaypan (accessed 28 October 2026). huntergatherer.la.utexas.edu/lexical/feature/211
- Atlas of Living Australia. Occurrence records within 60 km of the Karma Waters homestead (16.62° S, 144.60° E), species counts for Animalia (accessed 10 October 2026). biocache.ala.org.au/occurrences/search?q=*:*&lat=-16.62&lon=144.60&radius=60
- Karma Waters Station. Induction, waiver and indemnity form (updated 9 June 2023). www.karmawatersstation.com/uploads/3/1/9/2/31929385/induction_waiver_and_indemnity.pdf
- Anderson, C. (1996). Traditional material culture of the Kuku-Yalanji of Bloomfield River, North Queensland. Records of the South Australian Museum 29(1): 63–83. Based on fieldwork at Wujal Wujal in the late 1970s and early 1980s. — Hunting (spears, spear-throwers, harpoons); fishing (stupefacients); manufacturing (gums and resins); post-contact bush component archive.org/details/RecordsSouthAus29Sout
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